Hypertension, Obesity, and Target Organ Injury in Children: An Emerging Health Care Crisis

Kontis V, Cobb LK, Mathers CD, Frieden TR, Ezzati M, Danaei G. Three public health interventions could save 94 million lives in 25 years: Global impact assessment analysis. Circulation. 2019 [cited 2024 Nov 2];140:715–25. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31177824/

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, Buroker AB, Goldberger ZD, Hahn EJ et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: Executive summary: A report of the American college of cardiology/American heart association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2019 [cited 2024 Nov 2];140. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30879339/

Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM, Ard JD, Comuzzie AG, Donato KA et al. 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society. Circulation. 2014 [cited 2024 Nov 2];129:S102-38. Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.0000437739.71477.ee

Falkner B, Gidding SS, Baker-Smith CM, Brady TM, Flynn JT, Malle LM et al. Pediatric primary hypertension: An underrecognized condition: A scientific statement from the American heart association. Hypertension. 2023;80:e101–11. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36994715/

Hu K, Staiano AE. Trends in Obesity Prevalence Among Children and Adolescents Aged 2 to 19 Years in the US From 2011 to 2020. JAMA Pediatr. 2022;176:1037–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.2052

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017–March 2020 Prepandemic Data Files -- Development of Files and Prevalence Estimates for Selected Health Outcomes. 2021. Available from: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/106273

Kumanyika SK. Advancing Health Equity Efforts to Reduce Obesity: Changing the Course. Annu Rev Nutr. 2022;42:453–80. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-092021-050805

Hardy ST, Urbina EM. Blood pressure in childhood and adolescence. Am J Hypertens. 2021 [cited 2024 Aug 1];34:242–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33821942/

Hardy ST, Sakhuja S, Jaeger BC, Urbina EM, Suglia SF, Feig DI et al. Trends in blood pressure and hypertension among US children and adolescents, 1999–2018. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e213917. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33792732/

González A, Ravassa S, López B, Moreno MU, Beaumont J, San José G et al. Myocardial remodeling in hypertension: Toward a new view of hypertensive heart disease. Hypertension. 2018 [cited 2025 Feb 11];72:549–58. Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.11125

Alpert MA, Karthikeyan K, Abdullah O, Ghadban R. Obesity and cardiac remodeling in adults: Mechanisms and clinical implications. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2018 [cited 2025 Feb 11];61:114–23. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2018.07.012

Turkbey EB, McClelland RL, Kronmal RA, Burke GL, Bild DE, Tracy RP et al. The impact of obesity on the left ventricle: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2010 [cited 2025 Feb 11];3:266–74. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2009.10.012

Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Patel D, Artham SM, Ventura HO. Disparate effects of obesity and left ventricular geometry on mortality in 8088 elderly patients with preserved systolic function. Postgrad Med. 2009 [cited 2025 Feb 11];121:119–25. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/https://doi.org/10.3810/pgm.2009.05.2011

Harada T, Yamaguchi M, Omote K, Iwano H, Mizuguchi Y, Amanai S et al. Cardiac power output is independently and incrementally associated with adverse outcomes in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2022 [cited 2025 Feb 13];15:e013495. Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.121.013495

Fincke R, Hochman JS, Lowe AM, Menon V, Slater JN, Webb JG et al. Cardiac power is the strongest hemodynamic correlate of mortality in cardiogenic shock: a report from the SHOCK trial registry. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004 [cited 2025 Feb 13];44:340–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15261929/

Gutiérrez-Cuevas J, Sandoval-Rodriguez A, Meza-Rios A, Monroy-Ramírez HC, Galicia-Moreno M, García-Bañuelos J et al. Molecular mechanisms of obesity-linked cardiac dysfunction: An up-date on current knowledge. Cells. 2021;10:629. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10030629

Mouton AJ, Li X, Hall ME, Hall JE. Obesity, hypertension, and cardiac dysfunction: Novel roles of immunometabolism in macrophage activation and inflammation. Circ Res. 2020;126:789–806. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.312321

Huan Y, Deloach S, Keith SW, Goodfriend TL, Falkner B. Aldosterone and aldosterone: renin ratio associations with insulin resistance and blood pressure in African Americans. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2012 [cited 2025 Feb 13];6:56–65. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22024666/

Sowers JR, Whaley-Connell A, Epstein M. Narrative review: the emerging clinical implications of the role of aldosterone in the metabolic syndrome and resistant hypertension. Ann Intern Med. 2009 [cited 2025 Feb 13];150:776–83. Available from: https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-150-11-200906020-00005

Simonds SE, Pryor JT, Ravussin E, Greenway FL, Dileone R, Allen AM et al. Leptin mediates the increase in blood pressure associated with obesity. Cell. 2014;159:1404–16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.10.058

Zhao S, Kusminski CM, Scherer PE, Adiponectin. Leptin and cardiovascular disorders. Circ Res. 2021;128:136–49. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.120.314458

Parvanova A, Reseghetti E, Abbate M, Ruggenenti P. Mechanisms and treatment of obesity-related hypertension-Part 1: Mechanisms. Clin Kidney J. 2024;17:sfad282. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfad282

Chung J, Robinson CH, Yu A, Bamhraz AA, Ewusie JE, Sanger S et al. Risk of target organ damage in children with primary ambulatory hypertension: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hypertension. 2023 [cited 2024 Sep 5];80:1183–96. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36802759/

Tran AH, Flynn JT, Becker RC, Daniels SR, Falkner BE, Ferguson M et al. Subclinical systolic and diastolic dysfunction is evident in youth with elevated blood pressure. Hypertension. 2020;75:1551–6. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32362230/

Rus RR, Pac M, Obrycki Ł, Sağsak E, Azukaitis K, Sinha MD et al. Systolic and diastolic left ventricular function in children with primary hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2023 [cited 2024 Sep 5];41:51–62. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36453653/

Bartkowiak J, Spitzer E, Kurmann R, Zürcher F, Krähenmann P, Garcia-Ruiz V et al. The impact of obesity on left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction in children and adolescents. Sci Rep. 2021 [cited 2025 Feb 13];11:13022. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34158575/

Abdul-Raheem JN, Binka E, Roem J, Turer CB, Urbina EM, Brady TM. Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction among youth with obesity and history of elevated blood pressure. J Pediatr. 2021 [cited 2025 Feb 13];235:130–7. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33812920/

Vlachopoulos C, Aznaouridis K, Stefanadis C. Prediction of Cardiovascular Events and All-Cause Mortality With Arterial Stiffness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:1318–27. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109710002809

Haley JE, Woodly SA, Daniels SR, Falkner B, Ferguson MA, Flynn JT et al. Association of blood pressure-related increase in vascular stiffness on other measures of target organ damage in youth. Hypertension. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5];79:2042–50. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35762327/

Mehta S, Khoury PR, Madsen NL, Dolan LM, Kimball TR, Urbina EM. Arterial Thickness and Stiffness Are Independently Associated with Left Ventricular Strain. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2018;31:99–104. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2017.10.002

Cote AT, Phillips AA, Harris KC, Sandor GGS, Panagiotopoulos C, Devlin AM. Obesity and Arterial Stiffness in Children. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35:1038–44. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.305062

Flynn JT, Kaelber DC, Baker-Smith CM, Blowey D, Carroll AE, Daniels SR et al. Clinical practice guideline for screening and management of High Blood Pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2017;140. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1904

de Simone G, Mancusi C, Hanssen H, Genovesi S, Lurbe E, Parati G et al. Hypertension in children and adolescents. Eur Heart J. 2022;43:3290–301. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35896123/

Liao Y, Chu C, Wang Y, Zheng W, Ma Q, Hu J et al. Isolated diastolic hypertension in childhood and risk of adult subclinical target organ damage: a 30-year prospective cohort study. J Hypertens. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5];40:1556–63. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35730419/

Price JJ, Urbina EM, Carlin K, Becker R, Daniels SR, Falkner BE et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and target organ damage in adolescents: The SHIP AHOY study. Pediatrics. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5];149. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35502610/

Rovio SP, Pahkala K, Nevalainen J, Juonala M, Salo P, Kähönen M et al. Cardiovascular risk factors from childhood and midlife cognitive performance: The young Finns study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017 [cited 2024 Sep 10];69:2279–89. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28473132/

Lande MB, Kupferman JC. Blood pressure and cognitive function in children and adolescents. Hypertension. 2019;73:532–40. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30686086/

Lande MB, Batisky DL, Kupferman JC, Samuels J, Hooper SR, Falkner B et al. Neurocognitive function in children with primary hypertension. J Pediatr. 2017;180:148–155.e1. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27692987/

Lamballais S, Sajjad A, Leening MJG, Gaillard R, Franco OH, Mattace-Raso FUS et al. Association of blood pressure and arterial stiffness with cognition in 2 population-based child and adult cohorts. J Am Heart Assoc. 2018 [cited 2024 Sep 11];7:e009847. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30608188/

Ho A, Cheung CY, Wong JS, Zhang Y, Tang FY, Kam KW et al. Independent and synergistic effects of High blood pressure and obesity on retinal vasculature in young children: The Hong Kong Children Eye Study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2021;10:e018485. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33496185/

Lona G, Endes K, Köchli S, Infanger D, Zahner L, Hanssen H. Retinal vessel diameters and blood pressure progression in children. Hypertension. 2020;76:450–7. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32594800/

Zheng W, Mu J, Yan Y, Chu C, Su X, Man Z et al. Associations of blood pressure trajectories in early life with target organ damage in midlife: a 30-year cohort study. Hypertens Res. 2023 [cited 2024 Sep 5];46:2613–21. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37553520/

Devereux RB, Dahlöf B, Gerdts E, Boman K, Nieminen MS, Papademetriou V et al. Regression of hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy by losartan compared with atenolol: the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction in Hypertension (LIFE) trial: The Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction in hypertension (LIFE) trial. Circulation. 2004 [cited 2024 Oct 9];110:1456–62. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15326072/

Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, Casey DE Jr, Collins KJ, Dennison Himmelfarb C et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: A report of the American college of cardiology/American heart association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Hypertension. 2018;71:e13–115. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1161/HYP.0000000000000065

Sladowska-Kozłowska J, Litwin M, Niemirska A, Wierzbicka A, Wawer ZT, Janas R. Change in left ventricular geometry during antihypertensive treatment in children with primary hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol. 2011;26:2201–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-011-1916-8

Litwin M, Niemirska A, Sladowska-Kozlowska J, Wierzbicka A, Janas R, Wawer ZT et al. Regression of target organ damage in children and adolescents with primary hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010 [cited 2024 Sep 5];25:2489–99. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20730452/

Kupferman JC, Paterno K, Mahgerefteh J, Pagala M, Golden M, Lytrivi ID et al. Improvement of left ventricular mass with antihypertensive therapy in children with hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010 [cited 2024 Nov 4];25:1513–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20393750/

Holm J-C, Gamborg M, Neland M, Ward L, Gammeltoft S, Heitmann BL et al. Longitudinal changes in blood pressure during weight loss and regain of weight in obese boys and girls. J Hypertens. 2012 [cited 2024 Nov 4];30:368–74. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22157326/

Inge TH, Laffel LM, Jenkins TM, Marcus MD, Leibel NI, Brandt ML et al. Comparison of surgical and medical therapy for type 2 diabetes in severely obese adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 [cited 2024 Nov 4];172:452–60. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29532078/

Ippisch HM, Inge TH, Daniels SR, Wang B, Khoury PR, Witt SA et al. Reversibility of cardiac abnormalities in morbidly obese adolescents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008 [cited 2024 Nov 4];51:1342–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18387434/

Erbs S, Broniecki H, Scheuermann K, Winzer E, Adam J, Spielau U et al. Impact of weight reduction during adolescence on parameters of cardiac geometry and function in obese children. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018 [cited 2025 Feb 13];11:1915–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2018.05.023

Genovesi S, Tassistro E, Giussani M, Antolini L, Lieti G, Orlando A et al. Association between lifestyle modifications and improvement of early cardiac damage in children and adolescents with excess weight and/or high blood pressure. Pediatr Nephrol. 2023 [cited 2024 Oct 15];38:4069–82. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37349569/

Kaplinski M, Griffis H, Liu F, Tinker C, Laney NC, Mendoza M et al. Left ventricular measurements and strain in pediatric patients evaluated for systemic hypertension and the effect of adequate anti-hypertensive treatment. Pediatr Cardiol. 2022 [cited 2024 Oct 15];43:155–63. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34426850/

Chinali M, de Simone G, Roman MJ, Lee ET, Best LG, Howard BV et al. Impact of obesity on cardiac geometry and function in a population of adolescents: the Strong Heart Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006 [cited 2024 Oct 18];47:2267–73. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16750694/

ESCAPE Trial Group, Wühl E, Trivelli A, Picca S, Litwin M, Peco-Antic A et al. Strict blood-pressure control and progression of renal failure in children. N Engl J Med. 2009 [cited 2024 Oct 18];361:1639–50. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19846849/

Byfield RL, Xiao R, Shimbo D, Kronish IM, Furth SL, Amaral S et al. Antihypertensive medication nonadherence and target organ damage in children with chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol. 2024;39:221–31. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37442816/

Lande MB, Batisky DL, Kupferman JC, Samuels J, Hooper SR, Falkner B et al. Neurocognitive function in children with primary hypertension after initiation of antihypertensive therapy. J Pediatr. 2018 [cited 2024 Sep 10];195:85–94.e1. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29398058/

Comments (0)

No login
gif