From the aDepartment of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA

bMedical Investigation of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (MIND) Institute, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA

cDepartment of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA

dDepartment of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN

eDepartments of Mental Health and Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD.

Submitted August 29, 2022; accepted April 9, 2024

Supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH); grant numbers: R21-ES021330, R01-ES031701, R01-ES015359, P01-11269, K12-HD051958, and R21-ES19002. The United States Environmental Protection Agency STAR program; grant numbers: R-829388 and R-833292. The University of California Davis MIND Institute. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Disclosure: The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Supplemental digital content is available through direct URL citations in the HTML and PDF versions of this article (www.epidem.com).

Data and computing code required to replicate these results are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Correspondence: Rebecca J. Schmidt, Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 128 Medical Sciences 1C, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616-8638. E-mail: [email protected].