WFPs and their taxonomic diversity

Overall, 113 folk taxa belonging to 74 genera and 41 botanical families were recorded. A high proportion of these WFPs belong to the Polygonaceae and Rosaceae (17 species each), followed by Lamiaceae (7 species), Asteraceae (5 species), Fabaceae and Solanaceae (4 species each), Plantaginaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, Malvaceae, Dryopteridaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Berberidaceae, and Amaranthaceae (3 species each) (Fig. 3). The most dominant WFP categories were vegetables (47 species), fruits (40 species), herbal teas (12 species), herbal drinks (9 species), cereal crops (5 species), pickle (chutneys) and sauces (4 species), miscellaneous (3 species), and salad, spice, and condiments (2 species each). Indigenous peoples gathered these species for both their own and their animals' dietary needs (Table 2).

Fig. 3

Alluvial diagram representing the floristic composition of WFPs

Table 2 WFPs based on nutritional values and economic uses by various ethnic groups from Kashmir HimalayasGrowth form of the WFPs

The growth form results indicated that the majority of WEFPs are classified into three major categories, such as herbs, trees, and shrubs (Table 2).

Plant parts use

The results of the plant parts used revealed that leaves were identified as the most commonly utilized plant part, accounting for 41.04%. This was followed by fruit (33.33%), aerial parts (10.26%), rhizome (7.69%), bark (2.56%), grains (2.56%), beans (1.71%), seeds (1.71%), the whole plant (1.71%), nut (0.85%), root (0.85%), stem (0.85%), and tuber (0.85%) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

a Percentage of WFPs used among the studied 7 ethnic groups, b chord diagram depicting the plant parts used and species names as WFPs

Mode of consumption

Most of the species are consumed as cooked (46.46%), followed by raw snacks (37.80%), water-boiled (7.87%), decoctions (3.94%), and infusions (3.94%) (Fig. 5, Table 2).

Fig. 5

a Percentage of WFPs mode of consumption among studied ethnic groups, b chord diagram depicting the WFPs mode of consumption

WFPs used as vegetable

Wild plant species were consumed in different ecological zones of the Kashmir Himalayas during times of food scarcity. Younger parts of plants, such as roots, stems, and leaves, were used in traditional recipes. These plant parts were fried in oil with tomatoes, onion, ginger, and spices, and cooked as vegetables, either alone or in combination with other species. The leaves of the most popular species cooked as vegetables by local participants included Amaranthus retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. viridius, Chenopodium album, C. murale, C. botrys, Cucurbita maxima, Malva parviflora, M. sylvestris, Nasturtium officinale, Oxalis corniculata, Plantago major, Polygonum plebeium, Pteridium aquilinum, Solanum tuberosum, and Rumex nepalensis. The species that were dried and stored for the future during the snow periods in the rural mountainous communities included Amaranthus viridis, Phytolacca latbenia, Chenopodium album, Pteridium aquilinum, Dryopteris stewartii, and Amaranthus spinosus. Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium album, Rumex nepalensis, and Polygonum plebeium were the most commonly used species among the inhabitants of subtropical to alpine local communities in the study area and were thought to be digestive. Their long growing season, wide availability, and distinct flavor make vegetable plants one of the most popular choices among various ethnic groups. Pteridium aquilinum, Malva parviflora, Malva sylvestris, Phytolacca latbenia, Oxalis corniculata, and Dryopteris stewartii are the wild vegetables that are only used among the mountainous and rural communities of temperate to alpine summer pastures. Rumex nepalensis, Trifolium repens, and Taraxecum officinale are the wild vegetable species that were utilized throughout the study area. From March to November, local populations gathered the plant from agriculture fields, scrubland, dry places, shady places, lakes, and summer pastures. The locals of subtropical and temperate zones start to consume vegetables in early March and almost continuously utilize them until November, but on the other hand, subalpine and alpine communities utilize different available wild vegetables from June to October due to snow cover until June and then return to their permanent lower altitude residencies in the months of September to October due to the start of severe coldness and early snowfall in the last weeks of October and early weeks of November. The most common wild vegetables that are available in the market for sale include Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, Amaranthus viridis, Cucurbita maxima, and Solanum tuberosum (Table 2).

WFPs used as fruits

Sweet fruits were used as raw snacks by indigenous communities, particularly those who lived a herding lifestyle. A total of 40 WFPs were collected and eaten as fruits. The most important wild fruit species were Pyrus pashia, Pyrus communis, Prunus armeniaca, Punica granatum, Diospyros lotus, Ficus palmata, Berberis lyceum, Elaeagnus umbellata, Fragaria nubicola, Malus pumila, Punica granatum, Rubus fruticosus, and Viburnum grandiflorum. Malus pumila, Pyrus communis, and Prunus armeniaca were the most common fruit plant species that were collected and utilized almost among the majority of the ethnic groups, and these three species are also available in the market for sale. Some species are restricted to specific ethnic groups or ecological zones, like Gaultheria trichophylla, which is only utilized among the Bakarwal ethnic group, and Malvastrum coromandelianum, which is consumed only in the subtropical zone of the study area (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6

a V. vinifera, b P. communis, c R. brunonii, d S. nigrum, e B. lyceum, f V. grandiflorum, g R. sanctus, h D. lotus, i P. pashia, j D. indica, k M. alba, l C. microphyllus, m B. kashmirana, n T. wallichiana, o P. hexandrum, p F. nubicola

Herbal teas and herbal drinks

In our study species, 21 taxa have been used to prepare drinks such as herbal teas, coffees, decoctions, and herbal drinks. The bark of Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, and Taxus wallichiana is initially removed, and then the inner soft portion is soaked in water briefly before being boiled to make herbal teas. To improve the taste, sugar is added in proportion to the amount of water. The rhizome of some plants, such as Bistorta amplexicaulis, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium wallichianum, and Bergenia ciliata, is boiled in water for 15–25 min, then, with the addition of milk and sugar, taken as an herbal tea. Locals use herbal teas to stay fit and healthy because people in mountainous areas are mostly involved in laborious occupations and coping with the fundamental necessities of life, such as farming and agriculture. After agricultural practices, folks like to drink herbal teas to relieve fatigue. The leaves of Adiantum capillus-veneris are crushed in water with a pestle then kept overnight. Locals drink that greenish water early in the morning as an herbal drink before breakfast to relieve a variety of digestive problems. Leaves and aerial parts of some other plant species, like Ajuga integrifolia, Mentha longifolia, Mentha arvensis, Mentha spicata, and Plectranthus rugosus, are ground in water, then plant material is removed, and the remaining water is taken as an herbal drink. Indigenous communities in the study area use wild plants as herbal drinks to overcome gastrointestinal disorders and to make themselves healthier and more attractive.

Species used for sauces and chutneys

According to informants, chutney is made from just four species. Among the plant species used to make sauces and chutneys were Mentha arvensis, Mentha spicata, Zanthoxylum armatum, and Juglans regia. It's interesting to note that all of these species were used both fresh and dried, and they are all aromatic. In order to use these species throughout the year, the locals shade-dried them during the suitable seasons (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7

a Percentage of WFPs food category distribution among studied ethnic groups; b chord diagram depicting the WFPs food category

Storage and uses of WFPs during off-seasons

The storing and drying of WFPs is a vital task that offers stability to the food supply throughout year. Local ethnic groups in the area dry vegetables during the summer season, either by leaving them at room temperature or by exposing them to direct sunlight. This is mainly due to the region's hilly terrain and the presence of snow during the winter season, which makes it difficult for local residents to access markets and purchase fresh vegetables. Consequently, these ethnic groups rely on these dried vegetables for sustenance in such circumstances. In the study area, a number of plants were used during off-Seasons, such as the aerial parts of Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, Amaranthus viridis, Pteridium aquilinum, Phytolacca latbenia, Chenopodium album, and Amaranthus spinosus. Traditional communities collect Allium humile and Allium carolinianum leaves, which are then used by locals to make local spices or masala. Pyrus pashia, Pyrus communus, Prunus armeniaca, Punica granatum, Diospyros lotus, and Ficus palmata (Anjeer) fruits were dried and utilized during the winter season. Some plant species, such as Thymus linearis, Taxus wallichiana, and Bistorta amplexicaulis, were collected from summer pastures and used by local communities in winter as herbal teas. Traditional communities used Punica granatum seeds in sauces and chutneys during off seasons.

Market value of WFPs

To determine the market value of WFPs, we surveyed a local market and a central market, i.e., Muzaffarabad and Neelum. We observed that Triticum aestivum (Gandum), Juglans regia (Khor), Malus pumila (Syb), Bergenia ciliata (Butpywa), and Thymus linearis (Chikal) are some of the most important edible plants that are on sale in the market for different purposes. The market survey also showed that the current prices vary depending on the quality. Some current pricing for wild edible plants vary by area due to transportation costs for transporting wild edible food plants from one place to another. Triticum aestivum (150–250 Pkr. per kg), Juglans regia (200–600 Pkr. per kg), Malus pumila (150–400 Pkr. per kg), Bergenia ciliata (600–1000 Pkr. per kg), and Thymus linearis (1000–2000 Pkr. per kg) are sold in various markets of the division Muzaffarabad, including the Madina market in Muzaffarabad. Our results further demonstrated that Arnebia benthamii (Gaozuban), Phaseolus vulgaris (Lobia), Saussurea costus (Kuth), Solanum tuberosum (Aalo), Zea mays (Makaye), and Oryza sativa (Chawal) are highly known edible plant species by all age groups for their socio-economic implications. From all 113 studied species, 37 (32.74%) are available on the market for sale, while 76 (62.25%) are still unavailable. So, from the local perceptions of the indigenous communities, we can also promote the sale of these species that are unavailable in the market to overcome the food insecurity in developing countries as well as to uplift the socioeconomic conditions of rural communities.

Traditional cuisine recipes of WFPs

Different recipes for preparing WFPs were recorded. Locals used WFPs in a variety of ways, and knowledge of these species and their eating habits was passed down through generations. Depending on the type of plant, several methods were utilized to prepare wild edibles. Small portions of wild vegetables were sliced into pieces and boiled in water.

The raw material was boiled before being fried in butter or oil along with tomato, ginger, onion, garlic, and green chilly to make cooked food. The wild vegetables that were boiled in water and cooked in oil included Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus viridius, Chenopodium album, Chenopodium murale, Chenopodium botrys, Cucurbita maxima, Malva parviflora, Malva sylvestris, Nasturtium officinale, Oxalis corniculata, Plantago major, Polygonum plebeium, Pteridium aquilinum, Solanum tuberosum, and Rumex nepalensis. The most common traditional dish was saag, which was made by cooking various vegetables' green leaves. Saag's main ingredients were Amaranthus viridius, Chenopodium album, Plantago major, and Polygonum plebeium, which were boiled in water before being cooked. To prepare traditional saag, their paste was fried in oil or butter with tomato, onion, ginger, garlic, and green chilli, along with spices. On major events and special days, saag was served with maize flour-based bread, lassi (yoghurt drink), and chutney. Another important traditional vegetable known as Katha Saag was prepared specifically by using some specific vegetables, including Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, and Ficus palmata, in such a way that these plant species were first boiled in lassi (yoghurt drink) for about 30–45 min, then fried in oil or butter with tomato, onion, ginger, garlic, and green chilli, along with spices. This special Katha Saag was mostly utilized along with maize flour-based bread in dysi ghee (animal’s butter), lassi, and chutney. Another important local food called Sheera was made by combining maize flour with lassi (yoghurt drink) and dysi ghee (animal butter). Sheera is prepared in such a way that the locals first boil lassi (yoghurt drink) in a kitchen pot at a low temperature for 20–30 min, then add a relevant proportion of maize flour, followed by the addition of dysi ghee (animal butter), and then enjoy eating Sheera with the whole family. Chalithi was another traditional food that was mostly used by women after childbirth, almost for a month after childbirth. This food is used with a combination of some other local foods at regular intervals. The method of preparation of Chalithi was that it was prepared in such a way that first of all, rice was ground with the help of a of a pistle, then soaked for 20–30 min, then fried into dysi ghee (animal butter) at a specific temperature. Then, some kernels of Juglens regia, coconut, raisins, and some other dry fruits were added to enhance the taste.

Another traditional rice dish (Phatt) was prepared with the combination root of Saussurea costus and local rice in such a way that first of all, the locals wash and clean the rhizome properly, and then it is kept for boiling for 25–40 min. After a proper boil, they add rice to the boiling water, and then after 20–30 min, the locals add dysi ghee (animal butter), and then they enjoy this local food with the whole family. This traditional food was mostly used to overcome the joint problems among the mountainous local communities of the temperate-alpine zone. Recently, the trend of this traditional dish has decreased day by day. Another most popular traditional food among the Gujjar and Bakarwal ethnic groups was the Klaari. The method of preparation of Klaari was that it was prepared with the combination of milk from buffaloes and lassi (yoghurt drink) from cows boiled together for 10–15 min, then cooled and taken as food. The trend of food is also very rare; mostly locals prepare it during their short stay of 2–3 months in summer pastures or alpine meadows. Another most rarely used food was the Anch. This traditional food was prepared with a combination of milk from goats and lassi (yoghurt drink) from buffaloes. This traditional food is prepared and used the same as in Klaari. The most interesting local food, as indicated by the name Moti Roti, was used among the rural communities of Neelum Valley among different ethnic groups. This was prepared in such a way that during kneading the flour, local women kept the flour a little bit hard and then added animal butter, eggs, sugar, or salt. They then cooked that fresh material in the form of bread and took it with the herbal tea that was made from the rhizome of Bistorta amplexicaulis. Another very interesting local food is Dary-Behshat. This local cuisine was prepared in such a way that the locals kept the desired quantity of animal butter in a kettle or a boiler, added corn flour, fried it a little bit, added about 200–250 g of jaggery, and then again fried it. After that, locals can also add some dry fruits, and then local women wash their hands with water and make circular bread to eat. Bagori was another traditional local food that was used by the Loan ethnic group of the study area. Bagori was prepared in such a way that first local women boiled the lassi (yoghurt drink), then they kept that boiled lassi in a white cloth and squeezed that cloth in such a way that water (pang) from the lassi ran away, and then the remaining hard portion of lassi was kept in between two weighted stones and kept there for 1–2 days, and then again brought out from the stones and kept in sunlight to further dry, and then they utilized it as a delicious food.

Ul-Tiki was a traditional food that was recorded from the Shina-speaking linguistic and loan ethnic group of Phulawae. Ul-Tiki was prepared in such a way that during the process of milking from goats, buffaloes, or cows by indigenous women, they did the process of milking in a single milk vessel for about 15–20 times to store the milk froth on the surface of that particular milk vessel and store the bulk of fresh milk in another milk vessel. The locals collect a large quantity of milk froth from the inner surface of the milk vessel, and then they knead it in corn flour and pack it into the bark of Betula utilis under the warm ash for about 30–60 min, and finally they utilize it as food (Fig. 8). Many other cultural practices are associated with the local inhabitants of the study area (Fig. 9).

Fig. 8

Different traditional dishes used among the rural communities of Kashmir Himalayas: a local green herbal tea; b mix vegetables; c freshly prepared corn flour bread (makahe ki roti) by local women; d sauce locally known as chutney; e butter locally known as dysi ghee; f chalithi; g lassi (yoghurt drink); h homogenizer used by the local women for lassi and ghee production from yoghurt; i local halwa; j corn flour bread with sauce and yoghurt drink; k local dysi variety of rice; and l preparation of corn flour bread from wooden fire to enhance the taste

Fig. 9

Different cultural practices among the ethnic groups: a traditional house in the summer pasture; b mat locally known as Phandi; c traditional Bakhari used mostly during the winter season; d tandoor; e carriage of dry grasses for livestock by a local farmer; and f ploughing in the farmland by a local farmer

Ecological distribution of WFPs

This study investigated how WFPs were used in various ecological zones by seven different ethnic groups. These zones included subtropical, temperate, subalpine, and alpine. Interestingly, five plant species, namely Oxalis corniculata, Plantago major, Rumex nepalensis, Taraxacum officinale, and Trifolium repens, were found to be distributed across all the ecological zones that were investigated. This comprehensive analysis offers insight on the widespread availability and possible relevance of these plants under a variety of environmental conditions, emphasizing their importance in the diets and cultural practices of the area's ethnic groups. There were only four plant species that were restricted to the subtropical zone. These species were Zanthoxylum armatum, Rumex chalepensis, Polygonum paronychioides, and Malvastrum coromandelianum. There were 16 plant species that were only collected and restricted to temperate zones. These 16 plant species were Cichorium intybus, Elaeagnus umbellata, Fagopyrum dibotrys, Fagopyrum esculentum, Medicago polymorpha, Phaseolus vulgaris, Phytolacca latbenia, Prunus padus, Pteridium aquilinum, Rubus ulmifolius, Silene conoidea, Taxus wallichiana, Teucrium royleanum, Viburnum cotinifolium, and Vigna radiata. Only two plant species, Betula utilis and Rumex acetosa, were restricted and collected from the subalpine zone. There were six6 plant species that were restricted to alpine zone including Aconogonum alpiunm, Allium carolinianum, Arnebia benthamii, Bistorta affinis, and Gaultheria trichophylla (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10

Ecological distribution of WFPs in different ecological zones

Major threats

Anthropogenic and naturally occurring factors can be utilized for categorizing the causes of threats to WFPs. Climate change, agricultural expansion, fuel wood, deforestation, selective harvesting, overgrazing, debarking, overexploitation, fire, illegal export, soil erosion, invasive species, and lightning were among the natural and human-induced causes that the informants noted as local threats to WFPs. The ranking effort contributed in identifying the most serious threats to such resources in the study area. Climate change, invasive species, expansion of agriculture, and plant diseases are some of the most significant threats to WFPs in the study area. Some food plants illegally exported in the study area include Arnebia benthamii, Jurinea dolomiaea, and Saussurea costus, and these are also already declared endangered and critically endangered species. The members of the family Rosaceae, particularly fruit species, were facing the threat of plant diseases, according to the local respondents. Tree species such as Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, and Taxus wallichiana were facing threats of deforestation, and debarking for different purposes. People started fires, either intentionally or accidently, while looking for newly grown grass in the study area. According to respondents, invasive species were not common in the past, but their invasiveness is rising by the day, contributing to decreased yields of native crops and all other WFPs (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11

PCA analysis showing the major threats to WFPs

Cross ethnic comparison

Cross-cultural analysis of WFP gathering among the seven investigated ethnic groups reveals variability and the presence of distinct plant cultural markers. This study explored how people consume wild foods based on choice and cultural availability. Three species (Rumex nepalensis, Taraxecum officinale, and Trifolium repens) overlapped across all ethnic groups. Thirteen plant species overlapped across the 6 ethnic groups. Nine species were overlapped among the 5 ethnic groups. Nineteen plant species were overlapped across the 4 ethnic groups. Twenty-five species were overlapped among the different 3 ethnic groups. Twenty-three species were overlapped across the different 2 ethnic groups. The Gujjar ethnic group gathered and used a wide variety of indigenous plants, totaling 89 species. This was most likely driven by the investigated region's increasing population density, higher social contacts leading to more knowledge, and a move toward occupations closely related to wild food plants. The wide sociocultural differences identified among the ethnic groups analyzed, which differ across different geographical areas within the research area, may contribute to variations in how certain species are used, as reported.

Novelty index

The results of the current study were compared with 20 published articles, especially those focusing on WFPs from the region, as represented in Table 3. Cross-comparison showed that utilization of WFPs varies significantly across the region and communities, including their edible parts and mode of consumption. Jaccard index (JI) value ranged from 5.81 to 25 (Table 3). The highest value of JI was calculated for district Bagh, AJ&K (25.00), and district Neelum, AJ&K (23.40). Both districts located in the geographical boundary of AJ&K. Due to similar environmental conditions, traditions, and geography, the greater JI values showed similar kinds of vegetation in these areas. The lowest value of JI was calculated for Takhte-Sulaiman, Pakistan (5.81). The reported site is in an arid and semi-arid mountainous area with a warm environment, while the present site is in a cold climate representing a temperate to alpine zone. There is significant variation in environment, altitude, topography, and traditions throughout the study area. Only nine similar plants have been documented at the current site due to significant variation, as mentioned earlier.

Table 3 Jaccard index to compare the present study with the published literature of Himalayas show the Novelty aspect of current study

The current study had a higher degree of similarity in edible part use compared to data from district Bagh, AJ&K (42.5%), followed by district Neelum, AJ&K (32.86%). This is mainly due to the similar geography and vegetation in these areas. The lowest similarity was found in the district of Mastung, Baluchistan (3.18%), followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, North-western Pakistan (3.41%), and the semi-arid region of Punjab, Pakistan (4.57%). The mode of utilization percentage compares how WFPs are used in various ways, such as cooked, sauces, raw, pickled, and sweet recipes, between current findings and previous research. The percentage of similarity in part and mode of utilization was higher in AJ&K than in other allied areas, mainly due to variations in traditions, cultures, geography, and environmental circumstances between the local communities. Furthermore, various communities in specific regions use the plants in different ways.

Currently, we have reported a variety of traditional food cuisines and wild food plants (WFPs) that have rarely been documented but make up a significant proportion of the local diet in the investigated area. These include vegetables such as Arenaria serpyllifolia, Fagopyrum dibotrys, Rumex vesicarius, Rumex hastatus, Rumex chalepensis, Polygonum paronychioides, Gagea elegans, Amaranthus retroflexus, and Chenopodium botrys. Fruits that are rarely documented are Berberis kashmirana, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Gaultheria trichophylla, Rosa brunonii, Vitis vinifera, Myrsine africana, Impatiens flemingii, Impatiens edgeworthii, and Prunus padus. Novel herbal teas in the region include Abies pindrow, Arnebia benthamii, Bergenia stracheyi, Betula utilis, Bistorta affinis, Geranium wallichianum, and Taxus wallichiana. Additionally, Plectranthus rugosus and Teucrium royleanum are rarely documented plants used to make herbal drinks. Vigna radiata is rarely documented as a bean, and Skimmia laureola is rarely documented as a condiment. It should be noted that there are several local traditional food cuisines in the region, such as Chalithi, Sheera, Katha Saag, Bagori, Klaari, Anch, Moti Roti, Dary-Behshat, Phatt, and Ul-Tiki, which are unique and have not been previously documented.