Alfonzo AHA, Baines R, Chu A, Mann S, MacRury M: Clinical practice guidelines: treatment of acute hyperkalaemia in adults. The Renal Association. https://ukkidney.org/sites/renal.org/files/RENAL%20ASSOCIATION%20HYPERKALAEMIA%20GUIDELINE%202020.pdf Published June 2020. Accessed 4 Jan 2023.

Humphrey T, Davids MR, Chothia MY, Pecoits-Filho R, Pollock C, James G. How common is hyperkalaemia? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and incidence of hyperkalaemia reported in observational studies. Clin Kidney J. 2022;15(4):727–37.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Einhorn LM, Zhan M, Hsu VD, Walker LD, Moen MF, Seliger SL, Weir MR, Fink JC. The frequency of hyperkalemia and its significance in chronic kidney disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(12):1156–62.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hayes J, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Lu JL, Turban S, Anderson JE, Kovesdy CP. Association of hypo- and hyperkalemia with disease progression and mortality in males with chronic kidney disease: the role of race. Nephron Clin Pract. 2012;120(1):c8-16.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Makani H, Bangalore S, Desouza KA, Shah A, Messerli FH. Efficacy and safety of dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system: meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2013;346: f360.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sarafidis PA, Blacklock R, Wood E, Rumjon A, Simmonds S, Fletcher-Rogers J, Ariyanayagam R, Al-Yassin A, Sharpe C, Vinen K. Prevalence and factors associated with hyperkalemia in predialysis patients followed in a low-clearance clinic. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7(8):1234–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Susantitaphong P, Sewaralthahab K, Balk EM, Eiam-ong S, Madias NE, Jaber BL. Efficacy and safety of combined versus single renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade in chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens. 2013;26(3):424–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Batterink J, Cessford T, Taylor R. Pharmacological interventions for the acute management of hyperkalaemia in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010344.pub2.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Spinowitz BS, Fishbane S, Pergola PE, Roger SD, Lerma EV, Butler J, von Haehling S, Adler SH, Zhao J, Singh B, et al. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate among individuals with hyperkalemia: a 12-month phase 3 study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2019;14(6):798–809.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Weir MR, Bakris GL, Bushinsky DA, Mayo MR, Garza D, Stasiv Y, Wittes J, Christ-Schmidt H, Berman L, Pitt B, et al. Patiromer in patients with kidney disease and hyperkalemia receiving RAAS inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(3):211–21.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim K, Thomsen RW, Nicolaisen SK, Hasvold LP, Palaka E, Sorensen HT. Healthcare resource utilisation and cost associated with elevated potassium levels: a Danish population-based cohort study. BMJ Open. 2019;9(4): e026465.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kashihara N, Kohsaka S, Kanda E, Okami S, Yajima T. Hyperkalemia in real-world patients under continuous medical care in Japan. Kidney Int Rep. 2019;4(9):1248–60.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kraljevic Z, Searle T, Shek A, Roguski L, Noor K, Bean D, Mascio A, Zhu L, Folarin AA, Roberts A, et al. Multi-domain clinical natural language processing with MedCAT: the medical concept annotation toolkit. Artif Intell Med. 2021;117: 102083.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khwaja A. KDIGO clinical practice guidelines for acute kidney injury. Nephron Clin Pract. 2012;120(4):c179-184.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Emergency and acute medical care in over 16s: service delivery and organisation. CG94. 2018.

Logan Ellis HS, Kelly PA, Al-Agil M, Teo JTH, Whyte MB: Evaluation of the performance of point-of-care potassium testing for the early Identification of hyperkalemia in hospitalised patients. UK Kidney Week Poster session 16. 2021.

Acker CG, Johnson JP, Palevsky PM, Greenberg A. Hyperkalemia in hospitalized patients: causes, adequacy of treatment, and results of an attempt to improve physician compliance with published therapy guidelines. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158(8):917–24.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fleet JL, Shariff SZ, Gandhi S, Weir MA, Jain AK, Garg AX. Validity of the International Classification of Diseases 10th revision code for hyperkalaemia in elderly patients at presentation to an emergency department and at hospital admission. BMJ Open. 2012;2(6): e002011.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mahoney BA, Smith WA, Lo DS, Tsoi K, Tonelli M, Clase CM. Emergency interventions for hyperkalaemia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;2016(2): 003235.

Google Scholar 

Raebel MA, Ross C, Xu S, Roblin DW, Cheetham C, Blanchette CM, Saylor G, Smith DH. Diabetes and drug-associated hyperkalemia: effect of potassium monitoring. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(4):326–33.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lindner G, Burdmann EA, Clase CM, Hemmelgarn BR, Herzog CA, Malyszko J, Nagahama M, Pecoits-Filho R, Rafique Z, Rossignol P, et al. Acute hyperkalemia in the emergency department: a summary from a kidney disease: improving global outcomes conference. Eur J Emerg Med. 2020;27(5):329–37.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Arampatzis S, Funk GC, Leichtle AB, Fiedler GM, Schwarz C, Zimmermann H, Exadaktylos AK, Lindner G. Impact of diuretic therapy-associated electrolyte disorders present on admission to the emergency department: a cross-sectional analysis. BMC Med. 2013;11:83.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Singer AJ, Thode HC Jr, Peacock WF. A retrospective study of emergency department potassium disturbances: severity, treatment, and outcomes. Clin Exp Emerg Med. 2017;4(2):73–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Provenzano M, Minutolo R, Chiodini P, Bellizzi V, Nappi F, Russo D, Borrelli S, Garofalo C, Iodice C, De Stefano T, et al. Competing-risk analysis of death and end stage kidney disease by hyperkalaemia status in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients receiving stable nephrology care. J Clin Med. 2018;7(12):499.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Luo J, Brunelli SM, Jensen DE, Yang A. Association between serum potassium and outcomes in patients with reduced kidney function. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;11(1):90–100.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liborio AB, Leite TT, Neves FM, Teles F, Bezerra CT. AKI complications in critically ill patients: association with mortality rates and RRT. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10(1):21–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Conway R, Creagh D, Byrne DG, O’Riordan D, Silke B. Serum potassium levels as an outcome determinant in acute medical admissions. Clin Med. 2015;15(3):239–43.

Article  Google Scholar 

Chazard E, Dumesnil C, Beuscart R. How much does hyperkalemia lengthen inpatient stays? About methodological issues in analyzing time-dependant events. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2015;210:835–9.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dunn JD, Benton WW, Orozco-Torrentera E, Adamson RT. The burden of hyperkalemia in patients with cardiovascular and renal disease. Am J Manag Care. 2015;21(15 Suppl):s307-315.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

National Kidney Foundation. Best practices in managing hyperkalemia in chronic kidney disease. National Kidney Foundation website. https://www.kidney.org/sites/default/files/02-10-7259%20Hyperkalemia%20Tool.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan 2023.

Palmer BF, Carrero JJ, Clegg DJ, Colbert GB, Emmett M, Fishbane S, Hain DJ, Lerma E, Onuigbo M, Rastogi A, et al. Clinical management of hyperkalemia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(3):744–62.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Truhlar A, Deakin CD, Soar J, Khalifa GE, Alfonzo A, Bierens JJ, Brattebo G, Brugger H, Dunning J, Hunyadi-Anticevic S, et al. European resuscitation council guidelines for resuscitation 2015: section 4. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances. Resuscitation. 2015;95:148-201.

Prescribing information. Resonium calcium (calcium polystyrene sulfonate). Sanofi-aventis Canada Inc 2018 https://products.sanofi.ca/en/resonium-calcium.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan 2023.

Jadoul M, Karaboyas A, Goodkin DA, Tentori F, Li Y, Labriola L, Robinson BM. Potassium-binding resins: associations with serum chemistries and interdialytic weight gain in hemodialysis patients. Am J Nephrol. 2014;39(3):252–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

2019/20 National cost collection data publication. https://www.england.nhs.uk/publication/2019-20-national-cost-collection-data-publication/. Accessed 16 Jan 2023.

Emergency Medicine GIRFT Programme National Specialty Report. 2021. https://www.gettingitrightfirsttime.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Emergency-Medicine-Apr22q-FINAL.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan 2023.

Guest JF, Keating T, Gould D, Wigglesworth N. Modelling the annual NHS costs and outcomes attributable to healthcare-associated infections in England. BMJ Open. 2020;10(1): e033367.

Article  PubMed