The study area's local population continues to possess valuable traditional knowledge, which is evident from current research highlighting the strong connection between the local community and the provision of ecosystem services through forest resources. There were 330 respondents including ≈66% men and ≈34% women (Additional file 2). These respondents belonged to four different ethnic groups: Gujjars (N = 97), Phari (N = 88), Bakarwals (N = 77), and Kashmiri (N = 68), and represented a wide range of professional groups, including daily laborers, government workers, herders, shopkeepers, housewives, and herbalists. Women may be restricted to their houses due to cultural restrictions, which may account for the decreased proportion of female informants [31]. The greatest percentage of the informants (54.54%) were over the age of 56 years, followed by those between the ages of 28–55 (29.70%), and between the ages of 19–27 (15.76%). Over 50% of responders do not have any formal education. We found that older people held knowledge that was more conventional in this domain than younger people, which has also been found in other investigations [32].

It was noted that the illiterate population had more knowledge of traditional medicine, which may be explained by the fact that educated participants are expected to have exposure to the developed world and mostly rely on current medications rather than alternative one [33]. During the survey, it was discovered that people living in rural areas knew more about natural resources than people living in urban areas. In the rural area’s elders have higher traditional knowledge as compared to the younger once, the reason behind this is younger generation is not interested and have faith on tradition medicine as compared to generic medicine. This implies that the rural population is more connected to forest resources as compared to the urban population, elderly were the major caretakers of traditional knowledge, and if a structure is not put in place to ensure apprenticeship, the knowledge gap between the elderly and the young generation becomes a serious concern. In the current study, the link between locals and forest resources demonstrates the depth of indigenous knowledge on the various facets of plants used in the corridor. People's reliance on forest resources ranges from commonly utilized eating plants and medication to highly preferred fermentable plants.

In this investigation, 154 ethnobotanical plants from 65 families were documented, which have various uses, including medicinal, food, flavor, black magic, fuel, timber, and toxicity (Additional file 3). Regions with more diverse floras usually have more useful wild plant species for locals to report. The premise is that a broader choice of available species results in a correspondingly greater number being used [34, 35]. The way a species is used greatly depends on the socioeconomic conditions in the area, and distribution patterns might vary from location to location [36]. Families' contributions to different usage categories differed widely. The fact that several groups use forest resources shows how important these species are to the survival of the local community. The research revealed a notable dependence on a range of forest resources for medicinal applications. The research area had almost useful number of plant species as previous ethnobotanical investigations carried out in other Himalayan regions. In the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal, 121 and 116 species, respectively, were reported [37, 38]. From the Western Himalayas of Pakistan, more than 100 plant species were recorded in each study conducted previously [39] and from Kashmir Himalayan region less than 100 plant species were reported by [15, 22, 31, 32, 39,40,41]”.

Among the 65 botanical families, the gathered plant species were unevenly distributed and only nine families: Asteraceae (N = 18), Lamiaceae (N = 11), Ranunculaceae (N = 10), Polygonaceae (N = 6) Rosaceae (N = 6), Apiaceae (N = 4), Solanaceae (N = 4), Primulaceae (N = 4), and Plantaginaceae (N = 4) accounted for half of the reported plant species, while the other half belongs to 51 families (Additional file 3). Members of Asteraceae can adapt to arid and dry settings with ease because of their broad range of ecological amplitudes [22]. According to Kayani et al. [40], Ranunculaceae was classified as the most prominent family in the high-altitude areas of Pakistan. However, previous studies conducted in the Himalayan regions of India, Pakistan, and Nepal have indicated that Asteraceae is the dominant family [22, 32, 41]. Conversely, in the Eastern Himalayas, Lamiaceae is dominant [42].

Trees, shrubs, ferns, and climbers came in second in the current study after herb life forms for treating various illness categories (Additional file 3). The majority of highly valuable forest species were found at high altitudes, had a predominance of herbaceous form, and were utilized medicinally. Locals in the Himalayan region use large varieties of wild and non-cultivated edible plants for food, spice, fodder, and cultural purposes. Many plants are traded in great quantities to generate income, especially for their medicinal and aromatic properties. Wild plant consumption as food has been reported to be high in the Himalayan region year-round, but especially during the lean season. In addition to serving as a vital source of food and nutrition, forest plants play a significant role in Himalayan communities' culture and traditions. Forest resources that are accessible locally and are valued commercially have the potential to enhance the lives of rural mountain people. Through, careful planning the Phyto diversity of this region can considerably improve rural well-being by supporting health care and nutrition. Their understanding of plant habitats, availability, and the specific plant components they utilize significantly influence people’s utilization of forest resources. In forest-dwelling communities, the collection of forest plants is a common practice, driven by both the commercial exploitation of certain species and their demand from middlemen, who distribute them to markets beyond the local region.

The local population employed numerous plant parts for ethnobotanical purposes and prescriptions made by traditional healers. Results of the preference analysis result from a significant variation, with leaves being most frequently used, followed by roots, whole plants, flowers, stems, latex, fruits, tubers, bark, resin, wood, seeds, and young twigs (Additional file 3). Most plant components were used to make homemade dry powders by crushing well-dried plant materials that were stored in glass bottles for further use. The PCA analysis identified fourteen distinct groups based on changes in the preferences for using plant parts. The biplot revealed 14 clusters of plant component usage based on species presence or absence, including leaves, roots, tubers, flowers, seeds, bark, whole plants, fruits, stem latex, stem, resin, wood, and young twigs. PC1 and PC2 described 20.8% of the parts utilized in the biplot (Fig. 2).

Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of plant part(s) in the district Kupwara of Jammu and Kashmir, India

Herbs are abundant in nature and are particularly common in natural forests, along roadsides, and in-home gardens [43, 44]. Similarly, in the study area, the frequent use of herbs can be attributed to their easy accessibility from nearby forests. In addition, herbaceous species account for the majority of plant diversity in the Himalayan region's forests. It could be another reason that the majority of species identified for ethnobotanical usage came from the herb life form. Herbs play a vital role in forest ecosystems, particularly in the Kashmir Himalayas, and are utilized by local communities for their daily needs [15, 45]. Herbs, both annual and perennial, contain a considerable amount of bioactive chemicals and other secondary metabolites, which are highly effective in treating seasonal illnesses [46, 47]. Due to the dependence of indigenous communities on forest plants for their daily diet, different plant parts are favored based on their specific uses. Leaves, being the primary organs of photosynthesis, are known to be rich in metabolites [34, 48]. The use of leaves and aerial parts is considered sustainable and safe [49]. For therapeutic purposes, plant roots are often used or exchanged for goods by native pastoralists, herbalists, those involved in the herbal medicine trade, and people belonging to various ethnic groups. This tendency emphasizes how important the medicinal qualities of these plant-based ingredients are in conventional medical procedures. Plant roots are used and traded as essential components of the collective knowledge and customs of these societies, demonstrating a long-standing faith in the effectiveness of these botanical resources in treating a range of health issues [50]. Roots are recognized for their high concentration of bioactive substances [51]. However, it is important to discourage the overharvesting of underground parts or entire plants, particularly for vulnerable species, as this practice can lead to their eradication and decline in the wild [52].

The most common and viable strategies of traditional recipe preparations include using raw, drying the plants, crushing and grinding to fine powder, boiling to obtain decoction, making tea and infusion, poultice, cooked, and paste making (Additional file 3). As illustrated in Fig. 4, infusion (N = 58, 27%), followed by decoction (N = 53, 24%), poultice (N = 43, 19%), raw (N = 33, 15%), paste (N = 16, 7%), cooked and tea (N = 9, 4% each) were the most utilized preparations (Fig. 3). Most of the plant species are collected in the autumn season and depending upon the availability, forest inhabitants were aware of various plant species' collecting seasons, modes of collection, and frequency of collection. The preparations were commonly stored in glass bottles or other containers and utilized during the off-season or harsh winter conditions. Roots were the preferred plant part, as they tend to contain a higher concentration of bioactive constituents [51]. Aadil et al. [31] stated that grinding, boiling, and smashing were widely employed methods for extracting active ingredients in various regions worldwide.

Distribution of plant species in various preparations used for the treatment of diseases. The direction of the lines depicts which plant species is linked with which preparation category and thickness of each bar indicates the degree of plants used to plant preparations in each category

The majority of the medicinal plant species were used to treat gastrointestinal diseases, colds, fever, sore throat, cough, dermatological infections, musculoskeletal disorders, respiratory system disorders, and nutritional abnormalities. Some of the commonly used medicinal plants were Artemisia absinthium, Aconitum heterophyllum, Fritillaria roylei, Saussurea costa, Acorus calamus, Taraxacum officinalis, Jurinea dolomiaea, Rheum webbianum, and Geranium wallichianum, Capsella bursa-pastoris, and Cichorium intybus. The specific usage categories were created while considering the use of various recognized plant-derived pharmaceuticals and medicines as well as the bodily system utilized. In the biplot (Fig. 4), PC1 and PC2 explain 26.3 percent of the disease categories. Eleven clusters of disease categories based on species presence/absence can be seen there: gastrointestinal issues, cardiovascular issues, dermatological issues, cancer, gynecological issues, pulmonary complaints (RES), musculoskeletal disorders, eyes, ears, and nose issues (ENT), hepatic diseases, renal disorders, and Antidote. Traditional knowledge is inextricably linked to local people's interactions with their resources and surroundings. However, the sustainability of this significant forest wealth received the least attention because forest resources were not prioritized by different forest policies until recently. Ethnic knowledge of the applications of many therapeutic plants was disappearing in the study area, as it was in other sections of the Himalayan region, due to the younger generation's lack of interest in passing down and applying ethnomedical practices [53].

Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of different disease categories in the district Kupwara of Jammu and Kashmir, India

As shown in Fig. 5, more than half of the forest resources collected in the study area were used for medicinal purposes (57%), followed by food (21%), fuel wood (7%), fodder (8%), flavoring compounds, lumber (3% each), and religious applications (1%) (Fig. 6). Wild leafy vegetables growing adjacent to and in populated areas, such as Amaranthus dubius, Allium victorials, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Cichorium intybus, Diplazium maximum, Malva neglecta, Nasturtium officinale, Prunella vulgaris, Plantago lanceolata, Pteridium revolutum, Rumex nepalensis, Rheum webbianum, Stellaria media, Silene vulgaris, herbal tea is made from Bistorta. amplexicaulis, Bergenia. ciliata, Betula utilis, Fragaria nubicola, Geranium. wallichianum, Geranium. pratense, Hypericum perforatum, H. hirsuta, O. acetosella, and T. linearis. Some of the important plants that were used as fodder were Acer caesium, Achillea millefolium, Conyza canadensis, Linum usitatissimum, Malva neglecta, Sonchus oleraceus, Salix alba, and Rumex nepalensis. Fodder is mostly collected in the summer to autumn in the study area and it’s dried and stored for winter. Similar results were reported by [15, 54, 55]. Fuelwood plays an important role in the study area; some of the important fuelwood plants collected by the people of the study area were Ailanthus altissima, Abies pindrow, Berberis lycium, Cedrus deodara, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, and Pinus wallichiana. Plants used as flavoring agents were Allium sativum, Angelica glauca, Coriandrum sativum, Origanum vulgare, and Trigonella foenum-graecum. Some of the plants having religious uses like those that were used in religious gatherings were Jurinea dolomiaea, Podophyllum hexandrum, and Arnebia benthamii. Timber is used for construction purposes, handicraft in the study were some of the commonly used species were Abies pindrow, Acer caesium, Juglans regia, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, and Salix alba. Species like Aconitum chasmanthum, Acer caesium, Aconitum laeve, Atropa acuminata, Codonopsis rotundifolia, Datura stramonium, Delphinium cashmerianum, Euphorbia wallichii, Hyposcyamus niger, Phytolacca acinosa, Pteridium revolutum, Sambucus wightiana, and Saussurea costa showed toxic effects.

Distribution of plant species in various use categories in the region. The direction of the lines depicts which plant species is linked with which ethnobotanical usage, and thickness of each bar indicates the degree of plants used in each category

Relationship between use value (UV) and frequency of citation (FC). The full plant names are presented in Additional file 3

Ninety percent of the local respondents indicated that all the plants (154 taxa) they identified were used for self-care. The relative importance of botanical taxa used for treating particular types of ailments is indicated by the UV. The most important, well-liked, and valuable plant species that locals used as medicine were typically those with the highest UV. Such as Artemisia absinthium (0.57), Aconitum heterophyllum (0.56), Fritillaria roylei (0.55), Saussurea costa (0.54), Taraxacum officinalis (0.53), Jurinea dolomiaea (0.52), Rheum webbianum, and Geranium wallichianum (0.51 each) were the most popular plant taxa having UV above 50% (Fig. 6, Additional file 3).

The plant taxa with the greatest URs are those that were most collected for medical preparation because these medicinal taxa have multiple uses, i.e., medicinal as well as other uses. Therefore, it is important to prioritize their conservation and careful management to ensure their sustainable use. The taxa with the lowest UV values were Juncus inflexus, Salvia hians, Veronica persica, Sorghum halepense, Potentilla alba (0.12 each) Fumaria indica (0.13). Although these species were not well-liked by the locals, it has been observed that local healers regularly combined them with other plants in their regional herbal concoctions. According to the highest use report, there is a greater need for these medicinal plants to treat a variety of disorders, which raises their surplus demand and is the primary factor driving their extinction in their natural habitat. Multiple studies have highlighted the importance of certain plants in the Himalayas and their traditional medicinal uses among various tribal communities in the region. These studies provide evidence supporting the widespread utilization of these plant species as herbal medicines [56]. For example, A. heterophyllum and A. absinthium have been traditionally used by local communities to treat gastrointestinal illnesses, urinary infections, diarrhea, inflammation, digestive disorders, and high blood pressure [46, 54]. These plants contain phytochemicals such as lactones and terpenoids, which contribute to their medicinal properties [57]. The number of plant species employed in ethnomedicine corresponds to their overall utilization. One way to measure the relative usefulness of plants is through the use value (UV), which considers both the frequency of usage and the presence of these plants in literature sources [58]. It is important to note that a high UV value for a forest plant does not necessarily indicate numerous applications or mentions in publications [59].

Through cross-cultural analysis, it was evident that the ethnobotanical knowledge varied significantly among the four groups studied (Fig. 7a). Interestingly, we discovered that all four ethnolinguistic groups shared a common understanding of 44 plant uses, highlighting the diverse knowledge possessed by these communities regarding medicinal plants. It is hypothesized that because these forest species grow in the regions under similar natural environmental conditions, they benefit the health of the local population by preventing or treating common diseases in those same environments and climates. Although certain plants were popular because of their other ethnobotanical applications, most of the plants that were common to all cultures had medical, food, fodder, fuelwood, flavor, religious, and timber significance. The comparison of ethnobotanical knowledge among the four researched groups revealed varying degrees of similarity (Fig. 7b). The Gujjar and Pahari groups exhibited the highest level of overlap (10%), followed by significant overlaps between the Gujjar and Kashmiri communities (8%). Notably, the Pahari community displayed a rich understanding of medicinal plants and shared unique uses for the reported taxa. This study affirms that both ecological factors and sociocultural influences have played significant roles in shaping local plant knowledge. It is important to highlight the distinctiveness of the Gujjar and Pahari ethnic groups, as their medicinal ethnobotany and related practices stood out, although they had fewer idiosyncratic uses compared to other groups. The close affinity observed between the Gujjar and Pahari groups suggests the horizontal transfer of local plant knowledge between these communities, influenced by their sociocultural interactions and intermarriages. In contrast, the Bakarwal community, being predominantly pastoralists and having limited interaction with the other ethnic groups due to strict endogamy, knew fewer taxa and uses in their traditional medicine system. However, Bakarwal’s distinctive uses of plants indicated their extensive knowledge of species especially found in higher mountain areas, again reflecting their unique identity. The cultural isolation between the Bakarwal and Kashmiri groups has contributed to the preservation of specific interpretations and resource selection based on ethnic minorities and cultural differences. Their pastoralist traditions, preserved through cultural isolation, hold implications for adaptive strategies in the face of environmental changes. Furthermore, Bakarwal’s detailed observations can contribute significantly to conservation efforts and sustainable land management, with opportunities for integrating their traditional knowledge into broader initiatives for enhanced effectiveness and cultural relevance. Understanding and respecting Bakarwal’s unique perspective can enrich conservation practices and contribute to the preservation of biodiversity in the Himalayan highlands. Additionally, the study found that cross-cultural use of medicinal plants increased with altitude, indicating a preference for therapeutic plants from higher-altitude regions among the local inhabitants.

Venn diagram showing the overlap of use of plants by different ethnic groups in the district Kupwara of Jammu and Kashmir, India

The traditional knowledge transfer mostly occurs between Gujjars, Phari, and Kashmiris. The transfer of traditional knowledge occurs in the downward direction, for instance, Gujjars and Phari transfer their traditional knowledge of medicinal plants to Kashmiris. As in the case of Bakarwals, the movement of traditional knowledge occurs from lower to higher regions. Just in the case of Bakarwals of other districts of Jammu and Kashmir (Rajouri and Poonch) move toward district Kupwara and transfer their traditional knowledge. The valuation of forest resources varies across different locations, as it is influenced by the local community’s perception of the quality, abundance, and exclusivity of plant species within their vicinity. A particular species may hold significant value in one location but not in another, depending on the needs and preferences of the people residing there. When a plant possesses strong cultural significance, it motivates the community to cultivate and utilize it for their future benefits.

Our cross-cultural analysis in the Himalayan highlands highlighted that different ethnic groups, including the Bakarwal pastoralists, still harbor outstanding knowledge of wild plants. This underlines the importance of revitalizing traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). The Bakarwals, as pastoralists, possess unique insights into pasture environments, likely due to their close and intricate relationship with these landscapes. Therefore, integrating TEK into the educational curriculum becomes crucial, especially considering the detailed understanding of the ethnic groups with natural resources. Initiatives such as workshops and seminars can play a pivotal role in sharing this specialized knowledge, helping not only preserve forest diversity but also the cultural diversity intrinsic to these communities. Our findings underline the need for recognizing culture as an integral part of biodiversity programs, emphasizing the symbiotic relationship between traditional practices and ecological sustainability. Revitalizing TEK represents a holistic approach to ensuring the preservation of both forest ecosystems and the unique cultural diversity observed in the Himalayan highlands, as highlighted by the distinct knowledge held by the Bakarwal community and other ethnic groups. The utilization of quantitative indices helps in assessing the importance of plant families within forest ecosystems, indicating that families rich in forest plants are more likely to be utilized compared to others. This observation aligns with findings from various regions. The use of such indices facilitates comparisons across different locations and cultural groups, enabling meta-analyses to be conducted. The cross-cultural use of Himalayan plants was also discussed by Haq et al. [10, 15] who found comparable results in the mountain ecosystem of the Himalayas.

Out of 154 plant species, a total of 31 plant species have been identified as plant cultural indicator species across all four ethnic groups. All the plant cultural marker species were reported based on multiple usages of plants like medicine, food, fodder, fuelwood, flavor, religious uses, and timber. A highest number of plant cultural marker species were reported by Pahari ethnic group (N = 9), and these were: Capsella bursa-pastoris, Diplazium maximum, Equisetum arvense, Fritillaria roylei, Geranium wallichianum, Lavatera kashmiriana, Podophyllum hexandrum, Plantago lanceolata, and Thymus linearis followed by Gujjar (N = 8): Artemisia absinthium, Cedrus deodara, Fragaria nubicola, Ficus carica, Geranium pratense, Ligularia jacquemontiana, Malva neglecta and Silene vulgaris, and Bakarwal (N = 7): Arnebia benthamii, Betula utilis, Jurinea dolomiaea, Polygonatum cirrhifolium, Rheum webbianum, Saussurea costa, and Selinum vaginatum, while Kashmiri also have (N = 7) Allium sativum, Ficus carica, Juglans regia, Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Taraxacum officinalis, and Trigonella foenum-graecum plant cultural marker species (Fig. 8).

Indicator values of species in different ethnic groups in the district Kupwara of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Indicator plants are highlighted in box in different groups

Ficus carica was the only plant cultural marker species that was represented by two ethnic communities, i.e., Gujjar and Kashmiri. The reason behind this is the multiple uses of this species. Mostly it’s used as a fruit tree having highly medicinal