United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2023. United Nations Publication; 2023.

Lopez-Quintero C, Pérez de los Cobos J, Hasin DS, Okuda M, Wang S, Grant BF, et al. Probability and predictors of transition from first use to dependence on nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: results of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;115(1‑2):120‑30.

Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M, Hall W. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study. BMJ. 2002;325(7374):1195–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Callaghan RC, Allebeck P, Sidorchuk A. Marijuana use and risk of lung cancer: a 40-year cohort study. Cancer Causes Control. 2013;24(10):1811–20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thomas G, Kloner RA, Rezkalla S. Adverse cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular effects of marijuana inhalation: what cardiologists need to know. Am J Cardiol. 2014;113(1):187–90.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hartman RL, Huestis MA. Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clin Chem mars. 2013;59(3):478–92.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Brady JE, Li G. Trends in alcohol and other drugs detected in fatally injured drivers in the United States, 1999–2010. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;179(6):692–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Arbouche N, Gheddar L, Guyon J, Matheux A, Becam J, Boland L, et al. Pediatric cannabis intoxication in France and Belgium: a 3-year retrospective study. Toxicol Anal Clin. 2023;35(4):284–92.

Google Scholar 

Wennberg E, Windle SB, Filion KB, Thombs BD, Gore G, Benedetti A, et al. Roadside screening tests for cannabis use: a systematic review. Heliyon. 2023;9(4): e14630.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Karschner EL, Swortwood-Gates MJ, Huestis MA. Identifying and quantifying cannabinoids in biological matrices in the medical and legal cannabis era. Clin Chem. 2020;66(7):888–914.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Official Journal of the European Union. C/2023/1365. Commission notice clarifying the applicable legislation to the conditions for import of hemp and hemp seeds under Article 189 of Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and the Council. 2023.

Vikingsson S, Krauss ST, Winecker RE, Flegel RR, Hayes ED. Update on urine adulterants and synthetic urine samples to subvert urine drug testing. J Anal Toxicol. 2022;46(7):697–704.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kintz P. Hair analysis in forensic toxicology: an updated review with a special focus on pitfalls. Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23(36):5480–6.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Villain M, Cirimele V, Kintz P. Hair analysis in toxicology. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2004;42(11):1265–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferreira C, Paulino C, Quintas A. Extraction procedures for hair forensic toxicological analysis: a mini-review. Chem Res Toxicol. 2019;32(12):2367–81.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

De Campos EG, Da Costa BRB, Dos Santos FS, Monedeiro F, Alves MNR, Santos Junior WJR, et al. Alternative matrices in forensic toxicology: a critical review. Forensic Toxicol. 2022;40(1):1–18.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Malamud D. Guidelines for saliva nomenclature and collection. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1993;694(1):11–2.

Google Scholar 

Kunkel, Md F, Fey, Ms E, Borg, PhD D, Stripp, PhD R, Getto, Bs C. Assessment of the use of oral fluid as a matrix for drug monitoring in patients undergoing treatment for opioid addiction. J Opioid Manag. 2015;11(5):434‑42.

Miller GD, Van Wagoner RM, Bruno BJ, Husk JD, Fedoruk MN, Eichner D. Investigating oral fluid and exhaled breath as alternative matrices for anti-doping testing: analysis of 521 matched samples. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2019;176: 112810.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Desrosiers NA, Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. Quantification of six cannabinoids and metabolites in oral fluid by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal. 2015;7(8):684–94.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gorziza RP, Duarte JA, González M, Arroyo-Mora LE, Limberger RP. A systematic review of quantitative analysis of cannabinoids in oral fluid. J Forensic Sci. 2021;66(6):2104–12.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hoffman MA, Hubbard JA, Sobolesky PM, Smith BE, Suhandynata RT, Sanford S, et al. Blood and oral fluid cannabinoid profiles of frequent and occasional cannabis smokers. J Anal Toxicol. 2021;45(8):851–62.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sobczak Ł, Goryński K. Evaluation of swabs from 15 commercially available oral fluid sample collection devices for the analysis of commonly abused substances: doping agents and drugs of abuse. Analyst. 2020;145(22):7279–88.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Engblom C, Gunnar T, Rantanen A, Lillsunde P. Driving under the influence of drugs-amphetamine concentrations in oral fluid and whole blood samples. J Anal Toxicol. 2007;31(5):276–80.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Patteet L, Maudens KE, Morrens M, Sabbe B, Dom G, Neels H. Determination of common antipsychotics in quantisal-collected oral fluid by UHPLC-MS/MS: method validation and applicability for therapeutic drug monitoring. Ther Drug Monit. 2016;38(1):87–97.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hubbard JA, Hoffman MA, Ellis SE, Sobolesky PM, Smith BE, Suhandynata RT, et al. Biomarkers of recent cannabis use in blood, oral fluid and breath. J Anal Toxicol. 2021;45(8):820–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Houzé P, Borowski I, Bito E, Magny R, Morcos A, Voicu S, et al. New trend in toxicological screening using volumetric absorptive microsampling (VAMS) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR/MS) combination. Mol Basel Switz. 2023;28(8):3466.

Google Scholar 

Mercolini L, Protti M, Catapano MC, Rudge J, Sberna AE. LC–MS/MS and volumetric absorptive microsampling for quantitative bioanalysis of cathinone analogues in dried urine, plasma and oral fluid samples. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2016;123:186–94.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Marasca C, Protti M, Mandrioli R, Atti AR, Armirotti A, Cavalli A, et al. Whole blood and oral fluid microsampling for the monitoring of patients under treatment with antidepressant drugs. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2020;188: 113384.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Palmisani M, Tartara E, Johannessen Landmark C, Crema F, De Giorgis V, Varesio C, et al. Therapeutic salivary monitoring of perampanel in patients with epilepsy using a volumetric absorptive microsampling technique. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(8):2030.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Scientific Working Group for Forensic Toxicology (SWGTOX) Standard Practices for Method Validation in Forensic Toxicology. J Anal Toxicol. 2013;37(7):452‑74.

Spindle TR, Cone EJ, Herrmann ES, Mitchell JM, Flegel R, LoDico C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cannabis brownies: a controlled examination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in blood and oral fluid of healthy adult males and females. J Anal Toxicol. 2020;44(7):661–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lin L, Amaratunga P, Reed J, Huang P, Lemberg BL, Lemberg D. Quantitation of Δ8-THC, Δ9-THC, cannabidiol and 10 other cannabinoids and metabolites in oral fluid by HPLC–MS-MS. J Anal Toxicol. 2022;46(1):76–88.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Matuszewski BK, Constanzer ML, Chavez-Eng CM. Strategies for the assessment of matrix effect in quantitative bioanalytical methods based on HPLC−MS/MS. Anal Chem. 2003;75(13):3019–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reichardt EM, Baldwin D, Osselton MD. Effects of oral fluid contamination on two oral fluid testing systems. J Anal Toxicol. 2013;37(4):246–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Protti M, Mandrioli R, Mercolini L. Tutorial: volumetric absorptive microsampling (VAMS). Anal Chim Acta. 2019;1046:32–47.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moorthy GS, Vedar C, DiLiberto MA, Zuppa AF. A patient-centric liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry microsampling assay for analysis of cannabinoids in human whole blood: application to pediatric pharmacokinetic study. J Chromatogr B. 2019;1130–1131: 121828.

Article