World Health Organization. WHO fact sheet cancer 2023. Available online from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer. Accessed August 29, 2023.

Callejas BE, Martínez-Saucedo D, Terrazas LI. Parasites as negative regulators of cancer. Biosci Rep 2018; 38(5): BSR20180935. 10.1042/BSR20180935

de Martel C, Georges D, Bray F, Ferlay J, Clifford GM. Global burden of cancer attributable to infections in 2018: a worldwide incidence analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2020;8(2):e180–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30488-7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Debela DT, Muzazu SG, Heraro KD, Ndalama MT, Mesele BW, Haile DC, Kitui SK, Manyazewal T. New approaches and procedures for cancer treatment: current Perspectives. SAGE Open Med. 2021;9:20503121211034370. https://doi.org/10.1177/20503121211034366.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Anand U, Dey A, Chandel AKS, Sanyal R, Mishra A, Pandey DK, De Falco V, Upadhyay A, Kandimalla R, Chaudhary A, Dhanjal JK, Dewanjee S, Vallamkondu J, Pérez de la Lastra JM. Cancer chemotherapy and beyond: current status, drug candidates, associated risks and progress in targeted therapeutics. Genes Dis. 2022;10(4):1367–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gendis.2022.02.007.

Moore HC. An overview of chemotherapy-related cognitive dysfunction, or “chemobrain.” Oncology (Williston Park). 2014;28(9):797–804.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chakraborty S, Rahman T. The difficulties in cancer treatment. Ecancermedicalscience 2012; 6: ed16. https://doi.org/10.3332/ecancer.2012.ed16.

Lorscheider M, Gaudin A, Nakhlé J, Veiman KL, Richard J, Chassaing C. Challenges and opportunities in the delivery of cancer therapeutics: update on recent progress. Ther Deliv. 2021;12(1):55–76. https://doi.org/10.4155/tde-2020-0079.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vasan N, Baselga J, Hyman DM. A view on drug resistance in cancer. Nature. 2019;575:299–309. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1730-1.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang Z, Pang S, Liu X, Dong Z, Tian Y, Ashrafizadeh M, Rabiee N, Ertas YN, Mao Y. Chitosan- and hyaluronic acid-based nanoarchitectures in phototherapy: combination cancer chemotherapy, immunotherapy and gene therapy. Int J Biol Macromol. 2024;273(Pt 1): 132579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132579.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lu Q, Kou D, Lou S, Ashrafizadeh M, Aref AR, Canadas I, Tian Y, Niu X, Wang Y, Torabian P, Wang L, Sethi G, Tergaonkar V, Tay F, Yuan Z, Han P. Nanoparticles in tumor microenvironment remodeling and cancer immunotherapy. J Hematol Oncol. 2024;17(1):16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13045-024-01535-8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Qin Y, Ashrafizadeh M, Mongiardini V, Grimaldi B, Crea F, Rietdorf K, Győrffy B, Klionsky DJ, Ren J, Zhang W, Zhang X. Autophagy and cancer drug resistance in dialogue: pre-clinical and clinical evidence. Cancer Lett. 2023;570: 216307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216307.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yang Y, Liu L, Tian Y, Gu M, Wang Y, Ashrafizadeh M, Reza Aref A, Cañadas I, Klionsky DJ, Goel A, Reiter RJ, Wang Y, Tambuwala M, Zou J. Autophagy-driven regulation of cisplatin response in human cancers: exploring molecular and cell death dynamics. Cancer Lett. 2024;587: 216659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216659.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Knoll LJ, Hogan DA, Leong JM, Heitman J, Condit RC. Pearls collections: What we can learn about infectious disease and cancer. PLoS Pathog. 2018;14(3): e1006915. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1006915.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yaeger RG. Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development. In: Baron S, editor. Medical Microbiology. 4th edition. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; Chapter 77; 1996. Available online from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8325/.

Bouvard V, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Freeman C, Galichet L, Cogliano V; WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. A review of human carcinogens—Part B: biological agents. Lancet Oncol 2009; 10(4): 321–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1470-2045(09)70096-8.

Qiu DC, Hubbard AE, Zhong B, Zhang Y, Spear RC. A matched, case-control study of the association between Schistosoma japonicum and liver and colon cancers, in rural China. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2005;99(1):47–52. https://doi.org/10.1179/136485905X19883.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Basílio-de-Oliveira CA, Aquino A, Simon EF, Eyer-Silva WA. Concomitant prostatic schistosomiasis and adenocarcinoma: case report and review. Braz J Infect Dis. 2002;6(1):45–9. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-86702002000100007.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Salim OE, Hamid HK, Mekki SO, Suleiman SH, Ibrahim SZ. Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship. World J Surg Oncol 2010; 8:68. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7819-8-68.

Kiremit MC, Cakir A, Arslan F, Ormeci T, Erkurt B, Albayrak S. The bladder carcinoma secondary to Schistosoma mansoni infection: a case report with review of the literature. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2015;13:76–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijscr.2015.05.038.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Molyneux EM, Rochford R, Griffin B, Newton R, Jackson G, Menon G, Harrison CJ, Israels T, Bailey S. Burkitt’s lymphoma. Lancet. 2012;379(9822):1234–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61177-X.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sacerdote de Lustig E, Puricelli L, Bal E, Lansetti JC. Association of Chagas disease and cancer. Medicina (B Aires) 1980; 40(1):43–6.

Krementsov N. Trypanosoma cruzi, cancer and the Cold War. Hist Cienc Saude Manguinhos. 2009;16(Suppl 1):75–94. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0104-59702009000500005.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tanaka T, Hirata T, Parrott G, Higashiarakawa M, Kinjo T, Kinjo T, Hokama A, Fujita J. Relationship among Strongyloides stercoralis infection, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 infection, and cancer: a 24-Year Cohort Inpatient Study in Okinawa. Japan Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2016;94(2):365–70. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0556.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Seo AN, Goo YK, Chung DI, Hong Y, Kwon O, Bae HI. Comorbid gastric adenocarcinoma and gastric and duodenal Strongyloides stercoralis infection: a case report. Korean J Parasitol. 2015;53(1):95–9. https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2015.53.1.95.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tomaino C, Catalano C, Tiba M, Aron J. Su2012: a first case report of colorectal cancer associated with chronic Strongyloides stercoralis colitis and the complex management decisions that follow. Gastroenterol 2015; 148(4): Suppl.1-S575

Pritchard DI. Worm therapy: How would you like your medicine? Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist. 2012;2:106–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpddr.2012.02.001.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang B, Gems D. Gross ways to live long: parasitic worms as an anti-inflammaging therapy? Elife. 2021;10: e65180. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.65180.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Velasquez-Manoff M. An epidemic of absence: a new way of understanding allergies and autoimmune diseases. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2012; 110(30): 214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2012.12.001

Zheng Z, Lu X, Zhou D, Deng X-f, Liu Q-x, Liu X-b, Zhang J, Li Y-q, Zheng H, Dai J-g. A novel enemy of cancer: recent investigations into protozoan anti-tumor properties. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 13:1325144. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1325144

Ding H, Wu S, Jin Z, Zheng B, Hu Y, He K, Lu S, Zhuo X. Anti-tumor effect of parasitic protozoans. Bioengineering (Basel). 2022;9(8):395. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering9080395.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Caner A, Sadıqova A, Erdoğan A, Namlıses D, Nalbantsoy A, Oltulu F, Toz S, Yiğittürk G, Ozkök E, Gunduz C, Ozbel Y, Haydaroğlu A. Targeting of antitumor ımmune responses with live-attenuated Leishmania strains in breast cancer model. Breast Cancer. 2020;27(6):1082–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12282-020-01112-0.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhu YC, Elsheikha HM, Wang JH, Fang S, He JJ, Zhu XQ, Chen J. Synergy between Toxoplasma gondii type I ΔGRA17 immunotherapy and PD-L1 checkpoint inhibition triggers the regression of targeted and distal tumors. J Immunother Cancer. 2021;9(11): e002970. https://doi.org/10.1136/jitc-2021-002970.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lantier L, Poupée-Beaugé A, di Tommaso A, Ducournau C, Epardaud M, Lakhrif Z, Germon S, Debierre-Grockiego F, Mévélec MN, Battistoni A, Coënon L, Deluce-Kakwata-Nkor N, Velge-Roussel F, Beauvillain C, Baranek T, Lee GS, Kervarrec T, Touzé A, Moiré N, Dimier-Poisson I. Neospora caninum: a new class of biopharmaceuticals in the therapeutic arsenal against cancer. J Immunother Cancer. 2020;8: e001242. https://doi.org/10.1136/jitc-2020-001242.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Garcia SB, Aranha AL, Garcia FR, Basile FV, Pinto AP, de Oliveira EC, Zucoloto S. A retrospective study of histopathological findings in 894 cases of megacolon: what is the relationship between megacolon and colonic cancer? Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2003;45(2):91–3. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0036-46652003000200007.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zenina AV, Kravtsov EG, Tsetsegsaikhan B, Yashina NV, Dalin MV, Karpenko LP, Sheklakova LA, Kallinikova VD. The study of immunological component in antitumor effect of Trypanosoma cruzi. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2008;145:352–4.